Cold Open

It’s the morning of August 10th, 955 CE, near the city of Augsburg, in what is now southern Germany.

42-year-old King Otto of East Francia raises his shield as enemy arrows rain down from the sky.

Across the muddy battlefield, mounted archers ride back and forth, unleashing volleys at Otto’s men before darting back. But Otto’s disciplined forces hold their ground and await their king’s command.

For over half a century, Hungarian war bands have been raiding and pillaging the Eastern borders of Otto’s kingdom. But now Otto has had enough. He’s mobilized an army to destroy the raiders once and for all.

Otto waits for the perfect moment to strike. Then he lifts a special relic above his head, the Holy Lance—the spear believed to have pierced the side of Jesus Christ during his crucifixion.

Crying above the hiss of arrows, Otto urges his men to defeat their enemy in the name of God and all Christendom. Then, with a roar, he charges into battle, backed by galloping warhorses and the unwavering faith of his men.

This battle quickly becomes a slaughter. The Hungarian war bands are shattered, and those who aren’t killed in battle are soon executed on King Otto’s orders. This victory makes him the most powerful king in Central Europe and is so decisive that it earns him a new title: “Otto the Great.”

Yet trouble is brewing on the horizon. In Rome, the young Pope John XII is struggling in his fight against an alliance of Italian nobles, and Otto will answer his call for help. But their partnership will quickly fracture, and Otto will take the unprecedented step of overthrowing the Pope on November 6th, 963 CE.

Introduction

From Noiser and Airship, I’m Lindsay Graham, and this is History Daily.

History is made every day. On this podcast—every day—we tell the true stories of the people and events that shaped our world.

Today is November 6th, 963 CE: Otto The Great Overthrows The Pope.

Act One: Succession

It’s May 961 CE, inside Aachen Cathedral in East Francia, six years after Otto the Great defeated the Hungarians.

Coils of incense smoke swirl through the candlelit chamber as Otto proudly watches his six-year-old son take his seat on a marble throne. The boy’s feet barely touch the ground, and he struggles under the weight of his robes and the gem-studded crown on his head. But this child is now king, and all the nobles in the cathedral rise to acclaim him.

None of them is fooled, though. They know exactly who is still really in charge.

For the past 25 years, Otto has steadily consolidated his rule over East Francia. And despite his success at home and on the battlefield, he knows that many of the lords and noblemen who profess loyalty to him in fact dream of succeeding him one day. That’s why Otto has taken the unusual step of making his young son joint ruler with him.

He hopes this move will secure his line. Because Otto has a dangerous journey ahead of him. He’s marching his army to Rome at the request of Pope John XII.

A brash 23-year-old, Pope John wants to reclaim all the Papal States—historical territories that were once directly governed by the Papacy. But an attack on the dukes of southern Italy has failed, and now Rome is surrounded by enemies.

Only Otto can save John now. And in return for his help, the Pope promises to crown him with the greatest title in all of Christendom—Holy Roman Emperor. It’s a title that was held by Otto’s ancestor, Charlemagne, who marched to Rome 150 years ago. Now, Otto is determined to follow in his footsteps.

So with his son anointed as co-regent, in August 961 CE, Otto takes his army over the Alps and into northern Italy. As he advances, the Pope’s enemies flee, and by Christmas, Otto is nearing Rome. There, the Pope invites him into the city to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor.

But there’s a catch. The Pope’s enemies have only fled—they’ve not yet been defeated. The most powerful of them, Berengar, is in his mountain fortress of San Leo, biding his time and waiting for the right moment to strike back. So Pope John will only crown Otto as Holy Roman Emperor, provided that Otto promises to then destroy Berengar.

Otto agrees, and on January 31st, 962 CE, he enters Rome. The city is far from its imperial glory days. Vines cover the once impressive walls, slums spill out of ancient temples, and cattle roam through the crumbling amphitheaters. But it is still the heart of Christianity, and the delegation of robed Cardinals is waiting to escort Otto into the Papal palace.

That evening, Pope John invites Otto to a lavish banquet. Otto has heard that John is more a debauched prince than a holy priest, and hopes to find that the gossip isn’t true. But the young Pope John quickly confirms all the worst rumors about him. He drinks heavily and boasts shamelessly of his sexual exploits. This unholy behavior shocks Otto, and he vows to do something about it when he becomes Emperor. But until the crown is on his head, he keeps those thoughts to himself.

Two days later, Otto kneels before Pope John at the altar in St. Peter’s Basilica. As Latin prayers echo through the chamber, Otto takes a solemn oath to protect the Church and uphold the Christian faith. Then the Pope raises a vessel of holy oil for all to see and pours it onto Otto’s bowed head. The old King of East Francia rises as the new Holy Roman Emperor.

After this coronation, Pope John and Emperor Otto issue a joint decree. It reiterates the Pope’s claims on disputed land in Italy. But more importantly, as far as Otto is concerned, it declares that all future Popes will have to swear their allegiance to the Holy Roman Emperor before they can take the post. This effectively gives Otto power over the papacy.

But Pope John doesn’t see it that way. He’s already the Pope after all, and thinks that he will be the one controlling Otto. So, he tells Otto that the time has come for him to keep his side of the bargain. He must destroy Berengar.

But as Otto leads his army out of Rome, Pope John will begin to think he’s made a terrible mistake. Fearing Otto’s power, he will make a dramatic reversal, courting his old enemies and plotting the downfall of the newly crowned Holy Roman Emperor.

Act Two: A Church Under Siege

It’s mid-October 963 CE, in the mountains of northern Italy, a year and a half after Otto the Great’s coronation as Holy Roman Emperor.

On a rocky plateau at the base of San Leo fortress, Otto casts a weary look over his bedraggled army. His men sit in clusters, stoking fires and sharpening their weapons. Their faces are gaunt and caked in dust. The summer that’s just gone by was a brutal one. Unaccustomed to the scorching Italian heat, many of Otto’s men died on the mountainside. But victory must be close now.

They’ve been laying siege to San Leo for over a year, and the defenders can't have much food left. It’s only a matter of time before the fortress surrenders.

But then suddenly, a cloud of dust on the mountain road below announces the approach of a rider. It’s a messenger for Otto—and he has bad news. Otto’s ally, Pope John XII, has betrayed them. He’s joined forces with the enemy and is planning to attack Otto’s army from behind to relieve the siege of San Leo. Otto is furious, and he quickly convenes a council of war.

This is not the first troubling report he’s had from Rome since he arrived in Italy and was crowned Holy Roman Emperor. After his coronation, Otto tried to take the young Pope John under his wing and teach him decency and morality for the sake of Christians everywhere. But John has continued his life of debauchery in Rome, insisting that Otto has no power over him and that he answers to God alone.

So in his tent, over candlelight, Otto discusses this latest betrayal with his generals. Shaking with anger, he says that such a treacherous and unholy man cannot protect Christendom. With God as his witness, Otto announces that he will do something about it. He will split his army in two. Half will remain camped outside the fortress to continue the siege. Meanwhile, he will personally lead the other half back to Rome, where he will put Pope John on trial for his crimes and replace him with someone more worthy of the papacy.

Leaving the siege behind, Otto marches south. He expects to have to fight his way into Rome. But when he reaches the city, the gates are opened for him, and the guards welcome him in. Otto rides straight for the Pope’s residence, where he’s greeted by a flock of agitated Cardinals.

They tell him that Pope John is gone. When he heard that Otto was coming, he tried to rally the city behind him, donning his finest armor and scaling the walls to lead the defense. But the people of Rome refused to join him, and John lost his nerve. He hastily plundered St. Peter’s Basilica and then fled the city with as much treasure as he could carry.

Knowing what he does about Pope John, none of this is a surprise to Otto. And he reassures the Cardinals that they will not be harmed. He isn’t here to punish them. He’s here to restore godliness to the Vatican.

Soon, Otto learns that Pope John is in Tivoli, a fortified Papal residence east of Rome. Otto weighs his options carefully. Storming this huge castle and capturing Pope John would be difficult and time-consuming, and the last thing Rome's clergy wants is the defeated Pope led through the streets in chains. That would destroy the authority of the Papacy in the eyes of the people. So, Otto opts for a more formal approach. He decides to convene a Synod of the Church—a gathering of the clergy that will decide Pope John’s fate.

Hearing this, some cardinals grumble that Otto doesn’t have the authority to call such a meeting. But with Otto’s army occupying the city, their complaints don’t last too long. And as preparations are made for the Synod, Otto quietly begins a search for a new Pope.

Recently, the Papacy has been decided by the Italian nobility, almost as a prize that has been traded between the great houses for favor and influence. But Otto wants someone who will be loyal to him instead. So eventually, a modestly dressed papal bureaucrat is brought before the Emperor. This 48-year-old has no ecclesiastical training—he is not even a priest. But in Otto’s eyes, he’s perfect.

With his candidate chosen, Otto prepares to meet the clergy of Rome. And the Synod of November 963 CE will be like no other in history. It will depose one Pope and elevate another. And it will confirm Otto the Great as the most powerful man in Europe.

Act Three: Imperial Conclave

It’s November 6th, 963 CE, inside St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, a week after Otto the Great returned to the city.

Draped in golden Imperial robes, Otto rises to his feet, and the grand chamber falls silent. He looks over the gathering of Frankish clergy, Italian Cardinals, and Roman noblemen. They’ve all come together at Otto’s command to put Pope John XII on trial.

Otto outlines the charges against the young Pope John: conspiracy, adultery, and blasphemy. But John is not there to hear the accusations. He refuses to return to Rome, dismissing Otto’s authority and vowing to excommunicate anyone who takes part in the Synod.

So, Otto continues the trial without him. And after hearing a month of damning evidence, the Synod formally deposes Pope John on December 1st, 963.

This decision is without precedent. Never before has a Holy Roman Emperor removed a reigning Pope. It’s a profound assertion of political power over spiritual authority—and Otto isn’t done yet.

A few days later, Otto announces John’s successor will be Pope Leo VIII. He knows the Italian Cardinals are sure to be outraged that a foreign emperor has chosen a low-ranking bureaucrat to be the next Pope. But Otto needs someone like Leo—an uncorrupted outsider who owes his position solely to the Emperor. And within a matter of hours, Otto's hand-picked candidate, Leo, is ordained as a priest and then promoted through the ranks until he is finally consecrated as the Bishop of Rome on December 6th.

With this new Pope in place, more good news arrives for Otto. The fortress at San Leo has finally surrendered, and the troublesome Berengar has been taken prisoner. All Otto’s goals in Italy have now been accomplished, and in early 964 CE, he leaves Rome to journey home.

But this is the moment the deposed Pope John has been waiting for. As soon as the last Frankish soldier leaves Rome, Pope John crawls out of hiding and launches a rebellion against the new pope. John quickly finds support amongst disgruntled Italian Cardinals, and Pope Leo is forced to flee Rome.

When he hears this, Otto prepares to return to Rome and deal with Pope John once and for all. But then he gets some good fortune. In mid-May, 964 CE, Pope John suddenly dies at the age of only around 30. There are rumors he was killed by a stroke. Others say he was murdered by the husband of one of his lovers. Whatever the cause, his death leaves Otto free to reinstall Leo on the Papal throne—and then finally to march back to East Francia.

It’s early 965 CE when Otto the Great returns home. There, at a grand feast, he raises a glass to his son. Already a co-ruler in East Francia, the now ten-year-old will soon be crowned joint Holy Roman Emperor too. And with his line secure and his enemies scattered, Otto the Great allows himself a smile. He not only controls much of Germany and Italy, but also the Roman Church itself after deposing a Pope and appointing his own on November 6th, 963 CE.

Outro

Next on History Daily. November 7th, 1944. A spy who predicted the Nazi invasion of the USSR and the attack on Pearl Harbor is executed by the Japanese.

From Noiser and Airship, this is History Daily, hosted, edited, and executive produced by me, Lindsay Graham.

Audio editing by Muhammed Shahzaib.

Sound design by Mollie Baack.

Music by Thrumm.

This episode is written and researched by Angus Gavan McHarg.

Edited by William Simpson.

Managing producer Emily Burke.

Executive Producers are William Simpson for Airship and Pascal Hughes for Noiser.