Cold Open

It’s 10 A.M on March 4th, 1801, in Washington, D.C.

57-year-old Thomas Jefferson stands behind the closed door of his boarding house. He smooths his coat, straightens his shoulders, and takes a steadying breath. He’s been awake since before dawn, waiting for the most important appointment of his life. In just a few minutes, he’s due at the United States Capitol to be sworn in as President of the United States.

Jefferson opens the door and steps outside. Standing at attention, there is an escort of riflemen, ready to guard him on the short walk to the Capitol. The first two presidents arrived at their inaugurations by carriage, but Jefferson has chosen to go on foot. He wants to emphasize that he’s a man of the people, not a monarch or an emperor.

The riflemen begin to march, and Jefferson begins his journey. He tries to match their rhythm, but falls out of step. He eventually gives up, satisfying himself with waving to the well-wishers along the route.

But with his eyes on the crowds, Jefferson fails to see a deep puddle on the unpaved road ahead, and he steps straight into it. He looks down, wincing, hoping that the muddy water hasn’t ruined his white stockings.

But the procession doesn’t stop. And Jefferson quickens his pace to regain his spot as they turn a corner, and the Capitol building comes into view. Banners and flags hang from the unfinished structure, artfully positioned to hide the scaffolding. Only one wing of the building is ready today, and it will be years before the rest is expected to be finished. But it’s still a fitting location for Jefferson’s inauguration, all the same—a government still under construction, and a president promising a fresh start for America.

Inside the recently finished Senate Chamber, Thomas Jefferson will take the oath of office to become the third President of the United States. It will be celebrated as the first bloodless transfer of power between rival political parties in history. But the months leading up to this moment were anything but peaceful. A razor-thin election and the bitter recriminations that followed nearly brought the entire American political system crashing down before Thomas Jefferson could be sworn in as President on March 4th, 1801.

Introduction

From Noiser and Airship, I’m Lindsay Graham, and this is History Daily.

History is made every day. On this podcast—every day—we tell the true stories of the people and events that shaped our world.

Today is March 4th, 1801: The Inauguration of Thomas Jefferson.

Act One: What’d I Miss?

It’s March 21st, 1790, at Macomb House in New York City, 11 years before Thomas Jefferson becomes president.

A door opens, and a servant shows Jefferson into an elegant and spacious receiving room. He smiles, striding across the ornately patterned carpet and stretches out his hand to greet his old friend and fellow revolutionary, George Washington. But Washington keeps his hand firmly by his side. He steps back and bows stiffly. Jefferson hesitates, then returns the bow. Awkwardly, the two men then sit.

The last time these two met was almost six years ago. Back then, Washington was the heroic general who’d won the War of Independence, and Jefferson had just been appointed to a diplomatic post in France. Now, though, both men hold new roles. Washington has been unanimously chosen as the first President of the United States. And one of his first decisions has been to recall Jefferson from Paris to serve as Secretary of State.

After years abroad, Jefferson is startled by the changes that have occurred while he was away. As one of the nation’s founding fathers and the author of the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson truly believes in the idea that all men are created equal—at least, all white men. But he’s heard gossip that Washington is acting more like a monarch than a democratically elected leader. The new president travels only in extravagant carriages, and he refuses to shake visitors’ hands, insisting that they bow to him instead.

Even more alarming are the policies taking shape within the new administration. Washington’s closest advisors are Vice President John Adams and the Treasury Secretary, Alexander Hamilton. They make no secret of their belief in a strong federal government. And in order to rebuild America after a decade of war, they insist that the central government must establish a national bank and take on state debts.

But Jefferson disagrees profoundly. As he sees it, the American War of Independence gave the states their freedom from an overbearing outside authority. They shouldn’t be recreating it now. He argues that the federal government should exercise only the limited powers granted by the Constitution—and a national bank is not one of them.

So over the next few months, Jefferson rallies his allies in Congress to block the proposal. The debate grinds to a standstill—until Jefferson and Hamilton agree to a private dinner where they strike a deal. Jefferson withdraws his opposition to the bank. And in return, Hamilton agrees that the nation’s permanent capital will not be Philadelphia or New York, but a new city to be built on the banks of the Potomac River between Virginia and Maryland. This deal ensures that political power won’t be concentrated entirely in the North, where Adams and Hamilton have the most support. But neither in the South, where Jefferson holds his.

But despite this compromise, Jefferson and Hamilton continue to clash—over the meaning of the Constitution, the balance of federal authority, and the future direction of the republic. Their personalities are equally at odds. Hamilton is brilliant, aggressive, and relentlessly ambitious, a self-made man who fights for every inch of ground. Jefferson is reserved, thoughtful, and aristocratic, a Virginia planter who believes persuasion should triumph over force.

The breaking point for these two men comes in April 1793. As war erupts between Britain and Revolutionary France, President Washington issues a proclamation declaring American neutrality in the conflict. But Jefferson opposes that order, and for two reasons. First, while he knows their young nation is still fragile, he feels that America owes a deep moral debt to the French for their aid during the War of Independence. Second, he sees the presidential proclamation as dangerous overreach—Washington has seized a power that should belong to Congress alone.

But there’s nothing Jefferson can do to stop the order. Instead, exhausted and disillusioned, he resigns as Secretary of State and retreats to Virginia. But he isn’t finished with national politics just yet. Vice President Adams and Treasury Secretary Hamilton are consolidating their followers into the Federalist Party. In response, Jefferson and his ally James Madison decide to organize their supporters in what becomes known as the Democratic-Republican Party—a loose alliance devoted to states' rights, strict constitutional limits, and sympathy toward France.

But it's only in 1796, after Washington steps aside after two terms as president, that these two new parties face each other at the ballot box for the first time. John Adams runs as the Federalist candidate for president. Thomas Jefferson stands for the Democratic-Republicans. The results are agonizingly close. Adams wins the presidency by just three electoral votes—and under the rules of the era, second-placed Jefferson becomes Vice President.

So as he prepares to take up his new role, Jefferson regrets that he must leave the quiet of Virginia for the toxic atmosphere of government. He hopes he can restrain John Adams’s centralizing instincts from within the administration. But the two former revolutionary comrades will soon become bitter adversaries, and their struggle will culminate in America’s closest election ever.

Act Two: The Election of 1800

It’s the evening of July 4th, 1798, outside Congress Hall in Philadelphia, two years after John Adams became President of the United States.

55-year-old Vice President Thomas Jefferson storms down Chestnut Street, pushing past politicians wearing black Federalist rosettes, ignoring their glares. His jaw is set, and his pulse is racing.

Three years ago, the United States signed a treaty with Britain guaranteeing free trade between the two nations—an agreement that America’s oldest ally, France, saw as a betrayal. So French warships began prowling the Atlantic, seizing American vessels at sea. Diplomatic tension threatened to bubble over into outright war.

In response, President Adams ordered Alexander Hamilton to raise a standing army. And a few days ago, Federalists in Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts. This draconian series of laws allows the authorities to deport foreigners deemed dangerous and imprison citizens who criticize the government.

To Jefferson, these acts sacrifice the democratic ideals of the American Revolution in the name of national security. He thinks the new laws are not only unconstitutional, but tyrannical. A true republic should tolerate dissent, not crush it, otherwise it risks becoming indistinguishable from the iron-fisted monarchies of Europe.

But Jefferson is in a precarious position. Under the terms of the laws he opposes, he could be arrested for speaking out publicly, even if he is the Vice President. And with Hamilton’s standing army as well, who knows where the limits of federal power now lie. So, Jefferson has decided he has no choice but to leave Philadelphia. He’s going to flee for the sanctuary of his native Virginia.

Back at his estate, Jefferson continues the fight—but in secret. He drafts anonymous resolutions condemning the Alien and Sedition Acts, urging the states to declare them invalid. But only Virginia and Kentucky answer his call and denounce the acts. Every other state either complies or openly sides with the federal government.

So by 1800, Jefferson is Vice President in name only. He's been stripped of influence and responsibility, while the Federalists have tightened their grip on power. The divide between the two factions has never been wider—or more ferocious. And as another presidential election approaches, both sides prepare for a contest that could decide the fate of the country.

Jefferson forms a political alliance with New Yorker Aaron Burr, and the two men are selected for the Democratic-Republican ticket. Jefferson distrusts his running mate, though, unsure whether Burr’s beliefs are genuine or just political opportunism. But Burr brings something that Jefferson desperately needs—a chance to carry the Northern states. Even so, defeating the incumbent president, John Adams, will be a daunting task.

But then, on the eve of the election, the political landscape shifts dramatically. The Federalists descend into infighting when Alexander Hamilton turns on Adams. He publishes a lengthy pamphlet attacking the president and his achievements, badly damaging Adams’ reputation in the eyes of the voters just as the 16 states of the union hold ballots over the next five weeks.

At first, Jefferson is encouraged by the results. The Democratic-Republicans are clearly winning. But his glee is replaced by growing anxiety as the final tallies trickle in. The party’s electors were supposed to coordinate their votes to make Jefferson president and Aaron Burr vice president. But the figures have gone awry. Jefferson has 73 votes—but so does his running mate, Aaron Burr. The election is tied.

Initially, Jefferson expects Burr to voluntarily step aside, but Burr sees a path to the presidency for himself and refuses to concede. This triggers a vote in the Federalist-controlled House of Representatives to break the deadlock. And if the Federalists want to stop their greatest rival, Jefferson, from becoming president, they can simply choose Burr instead.

But as the stalemate drags on into January 1801, a terrifying rumor spreads that the Federalists may ignore the election result entirely and install a temporary president until a new ballot can be held. Jefferson rushes to visit President Adams, begging him to stop what Jefferson sees as a coup. But Adams is unmoved. Jefferson has the power to end the crisis himself—he only needs to commit to certain Federalist policies, and the House will vote for him. But Jefferson refuses to give in to what he sees as blackmail. He will not enter the presidency with his hands tied.

So on February 11th, 1801, the House of Representatives convenes to decide the result of the election. Across six agonizing days, lawmakers cast ballot after ballot. Thirty-five times, the result is the same—a tie between Jefferson and Burr.

But behind the scenes, amid rising fears of violence and even civil war, an unlikely savior emerges. Alexander Hamilton despises Jefferson’s politics, but he prefers Jefferson the man to Aaron Burr, who Hamilton believes has no ideology at all. So quietly, Hamilton persuades key Federalists to abstain or switch sides in their vote.

So, on February 17th, 1801, on the 36th ballot, the deadlock will finally be broken. Aaron Burr will be defeated, and after weeks of uncertainty that threatened to tear the republic apart, Thomas Jefferson will be confirmed as the next President of the United States.

Act Three: History Has Its Eyes on You

It’s winter 1818, in Virginia, 17 years after Thomas Jefferson’s inauguration as President of the United States.

Now 75 years old, Jefferson sits at a candlelit desk in his home, carefully composing a letter to a former political adversary. John Adams’ wife has recently died, and Jefferson is writing to offer his condolences, as one former president to another.

Six years ago, these two founding fathers turned bitter rivals, embarked on a surprising new stage in their relationship. They became devoted correspondents. From their homes in Virginia and Massachusetts, Jefferson and Adams now exchange long, thoughtful letters debating philosophy, history, religion, science, and politics. Their tone is warm and even playful. They spar politely, trade jokes, and even unite in criticism of their old adversaries Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr, who themselves fought a deadly duel back in 1804.

That led to Hamilton’s death and was the most notorious scandal of Jefferson’s presidency. But away from that drama, his time in office saw monumental changes to the American Republic. The Louisiana Purchase doubled the landmass of the United States and began the country’s westward expansion. And although he had previously warned against executive overreach, Jefferson wielded federal power aggressively when circumstances demanded it. He even used military force to defend American neutrality as the Napoleonic Wars engulfed Europe. Finally, after two terms in office, Jefferson stepped aside in 1809. He then began a long overdue retirement—and eventually, mended bridges with an old adversary.

So tonight, with a final flourish of his pen, Jefferson finishes his letter of condolence. He folds it neatly and sets it aside for his secretary. Rising from his chair, he already looks forward to Adams’ reply.

But their correspondence won't last much longer. In the early hours of July 4th, 1826, on the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson will die. And in a final, remarkable coincidence, John Adams will follow him to the grave only a few hours later. The two founding fathers and political rivals will be bound in death, just as they were in life.

Over the centuries to come, Thomas Jefferson will be remembered as the author of the Declaration of Independence and a leader who helped define the character of the young American republic. His presidency began in bitterness and uncertainty, after a bruising election that nearly broke the system. But the American experiment endured and moved forward peacefully when Thomas Jefferson took the oath of office to begin his presidency on March 4th, 1801.

Outro

Next on History Daily. March 5th, 1770. British soldiers killed five colonists amid the chaos of the Boston Massacre.

From Noiser and Airship, this is History Daily, hosted, edited, and executive produced by me, Lindsay Graham.

Audio editing by Muhammad Shahzaib.

Sound design by Mollie Baack.

Music by Thrumm.

This episode is written and researched by Angus Gavan McHarg.

Edited by Scott Reeves.

Managing producer Emily Burke.

Executive Producers are William Simpson for Airship, and Pascal Hughes for Noiser.